Early Greek Philosophy: Complete Study Guide

Penguin Classics Edition

This guide offers a detailed, comprehensive exploration of the 21 pre-Socratic philosophers featured in Early Greek Philosophy. Each section includes their historical context, philosophical contributions, key fragments, and an analysis of their enduring legacy.

1. Thales of Miletus

Historical Context

Thales (c. 624–546 BCE), considered the first philosopher in Western history, was a native of Miletus, an Ionian city. He is credited with shifting philosophical thought from mythology to naturalistic explanations.

Philosophical Contributions

Arche: Thales proposed that water is the fundamental principle (arche) underlying all things.
Rationale: Water is necessary for life, can exist in different states (liquid, solid, gas), and is widely observable in nature.
Cosmology:
Believed the Earth floated on water.
Introduced the idea that natural phenomena could be explained without invoking myths.

Scientific Insights

Credited with predicting a solar eclipse in 585 BCE.
Developed early geometric principles, such as using shadows to measure the height of pyramids.

Notable Quotes:

“All things are full of gods.”
“Water is the first principle of everything.”

Thales laid the groundwork for future inquiries into the nature of reality by emphasizing observation and reasoning.

2. Anaximander of Miletus

Historical Context

A pupil of Thales, Anaximander (c. 610–546 BCE) expanded on his teacher’s ideas, introducing more abstract principles.

Philosophical Contributions

Apeiron: Introduced the concept of the Apeiron (the Boundless or Infinite) as the origin of all things.
The Apeiron is eternal, ageless, and encompasses all opposites (e.g., hot and cold, wet and dry).
Cosmology:
Proposed that the Earth floats freely in space, unsupported.
Described the universe as a system of revolving spheres.

Notable Quotes:

“The source of all things is the boundless, for it is eternal and indestructible.”
“From what source things arise, to that they return.”

Anaximander’s abstract notion of the Apeiron marked a significant step towards metaphysical speculation.

3. Anaximenes of Miletus

Historical Context

A student of Anaximander, Anaximenes (c. 586–526 BCE) sought a more tangible primary substance.

Philosophical Contributions

Arche: Identified air as the fundamental substance.
Explained natural changes through processes of condensation (forming solids) and rarefaction (forming fire).
Cosmology:
Believed the Earth is flat and floats on air.
The sun, moon, and stars are also composed of air in different states.

Notable Quote:

“Just as our soul, being air, holds us together, so does breath and air encompass the entire cosmos.”

Anaximenes offered a more empirical model that connected observable natural processes to a fundamental principle.

4. Pythagoras of Samos

Historical Context

Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) founded a religious and philosophical community in Croton. His teachings combined mysticism, mathematics, and ethical living.

Philosophical Contributions

Mathematics as the Essence of Reality:
Proposed that number is the fundamental principle of all things.
Discovered mathematical relationships in music (e.g., harmony and ratios).
Transmigration of the Soul:
Advocated for the immortality of the soul and its reincarnation through different forms.
Cosmology:
Introduced the concept of the harmony of the spheres, where celestial bodies produce a form of music.

Notable Quote:

“There is geometry in the humming of the strings, there is music in the spacing of the spheres.”

Pythagoras’ fusion of mathematics and metaphysics influenced later thinkers like Plato and shaped Western scientific thought.

5. Alcmaeon of Croton

Historical Context

A disciple of Pythagoras, Alcmaeon (active c. 5th century BCE) made significant contributions to both philosophy and early medicine.

Philosophical Contributions

Balance and Health:
Believed health results from the balance of opposites (e.g., hot and cold, wet and dry).
Disease arises from the dominance of one opposite over the others.
Immortality of the Soul:
Argued that the soul is immortal and shares qualities with divine entities.

Notable Quote:

“Health is the equality of forces; disease is the superiority of one.”

Alcmaeon’s dual focus on medicine and metaphysics exemplified the holistic thinking of early Greek philosophy.

6. Xenophanes of Colophon

Historical Context

Xenophanes (c. 570–478 BCE) was a wandering poet and philosopher who critiqued traditional religious views.

Philosophical Contributions

Critique of Anthropomorphism:
Condemned the human-like depictions of gods in Greek mythology.
Proposed that if animals could depict gods, they would resemble animals.
Monotheism:
Argued for the existence of a singular, omnipotent, and unchanging god.

Notable Quotes:

“If oxen and horses had hands, they would depict their gods as oxen and horses.”
“There is one god, greatest among gods and men, neither in form nor thought like mortals.”

Xenophanes laid the groundwork for later theological and metaphysical developments.

7. Heraclitus of Ephesus

Historical Context

Heraclitus (c. 535–475 BCE), known as “The Obscure,” was a philosopher of change and contradiction.

Philosophical Contributions

Flux and Change:
Believed that everything is in a state of constant change (panta rhei).
Emphasized the unity of opposites.
Logos:
Introduced the concept of the Logos as the rational principle governing the cosmos.

Notable Quotes:

“You cannot step into the same river twice.”
“The Logos is common, but most people live as if they have their own private understanding.”

Heraclitus’ philosophy of change influenced later thinkers, particularly in metaphysics and existentialism.

8. Parmenides of Elea

Historical Context

Parmenides (c. 515–450 BCE) founded the Eleatic school of philosophy, focusing on the nature of being.

Philosophical Contributions

Being and Reality:
Argued that Being is eternal, unchanging, and indivisible.
Denied the reality of change and multiplicity.
Truth vs. Opinion:
Distinguished between the way of truth (what is) and the way of opinion (what seems).

Notable Quotes:

“What is, is; what is not, cannot be.”
“Thought and being are the same.”

Parmenides’ radical monism challenged traditional views and deeply influenced Plato’s metaphysics.

9. Zeno of Elea

Historical Context

Zeno (c. 490–430 BCE), a student of Parmenides, is best known for his paradoxes.

Philosophical Contributions

Paradoxes of Motion and Plurality:
Achilles and the Tortoise: Demonstrates the impossibility of motion.
The Dichotomy: Argues that reaching any point requires completing an infinite number of steps.
Defense of Parmenides:
Used paradoxes to argue against the reality of change and multiplicity.

Notable Quote:

“If being is, there cannot be many.”

Zeno’s paradoxes remain foundational to discussions of infinity and the nature of space and time.

10. Melissus of Samos

Historical Context

Melissus (c. 5th century BCE) expanded on Parmenides’ ideas, emphasizing the unity and eternality of Being.

Philosophical Contributions

Eternal and Infinite Being:
Argued that reality is ungenerated, indestructible, and boundless.
Rejection of Sensory Experience:
Denied the validity of sensory perception in understanding reality.

Notable Quote:

“If something exists, it must always exist.”

Melissus added further rigor to Eleatic monism.

11. Empedocles of Acragas

Historical Context

Empedocles (c. 494–434 BCE) was a philosopher, poet, and mystic from the Greek city of Acragas in Sicily. He was both a scientist and a religious thinker, combining rational inquiry with spiritual beliefs.

Philosophical Contributions

Theory of the Four Elements:
Proposed that all matter is composed of four eternal and unchanging elements: earth, air, fire, and water.
These elements combine and separate under the influence of two opposing forces: Love (which unites) and Strife (which divides).
Cosmic Cycles:
Believed the universe undergoes eternal cycles of creation and destruction, driven by the interplay of Love and Strife.
Reincarnation and Purification:
Advocated for the transmigration of souls and emphasized the importance of purification through spiritual practices.

Notable Quotes:

“From what is not, nothing can come; and what is, cannot be destroyed.”
“The forces of Love and Strife govern all things.”

Empedocles’ combination of materialism and mysticism significantly influenced both science and metaphysics.

12. Fifth-Century Pythagoreanism

Historical Context

The Pythagorean school flourished in the 5th century BCE, further developing Pythagoras’ ideas by blending mathematics, philosophy, and spirituality.

Philosophical Contributions

Mathematical Cosmology:
Believed the universe operates according to numerical relationships, with harmony and proportion governing both physical and metaphysical realms.
Ethical Teachings:
Advocated for a disciplined life of moderation, self-control, and the pursuit of wisdom.

Notable Quote:

“The cosmos is a harmony of opposites.”

This phase of Pythagoreanism deepened the connection between mathematics and metaphysical inquiry.

13. Hippasus of Metapontum

Historical Context

Hippasus, an early Pythagorean philosopher, is famously credited (or blamed) for discovering irrational numbers, which challenged the Pythagorean doctrine of numerical harmony.

Philosophical Contributions

Irrational Numbers:
Demonstrated that not all quantities could be expressed as ratios of whole numbers, with the diagonal of a square being a prime example.
Cosmological Element:
Suggested that fire is the fundamental principle, emphasizing change and transformation.

Notable Quote:

“All things are in flux, like fire.”

Hippasus’ mathematical discovery marked a turning point in Greek mathematics and philosophy.

14. Philolaus of Croton

Historical Context

Philolaus (c. 470–385 BCE) was a prominent Pythagorean who contributed to cosmology and metaphysics.

Philosophical Contributions

Harmonic Universe:
Proposed that harmony arises from the interaction of limited and unlimited elements.
Geocentric Model:
Suggested the Earth is not at the center of the universe but orbits around a “central fire.”

Notable Quote:

“The harmony of the universe depends on the mixing of opposites.”

Philolaus’ cosmological theories influenced early astronomical models.

15. Ion of Chios

Historical Context

Ion of Chios (c. 490–420 BCE) was a philosopher-poet whose works blended myth, philosophy, and literature.

Philosophical Contributions

Poetic Philosophy:
Used poetic language to express philosophical truths, emphasizing creativity and the role of the divine.

Notable Quote:

“Reason shapes the cosmos like a craftsman.”

Ion exemplified the fusion of artistic and philosophical pursuits in early Greek thought.

16. Hippo of Samos

Historical Context

Hippo (5th century BCE) was a lesser-known pre-Socratic philosopher who explored the nature of life and its origins.

Philosophical Contributions

Primordial Elements:
Considered water and fire as the fundamental principles of life.
Biological Speculation:
Proposed that life emerged from the interaction of these elements.

Notable Quote:

“Water and fire sustain all life.”

Hippo’s ideas contributed to early biological and cosmological theories.

17. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae

Historical Context

Anaxagoras (c. 500–428 BCE) was the first philosopher to bring rational philosophy to Athens.

Philosophical Contributions

Nous (Mind):
Introduced the concept of Nous as a cosmic, intelligent force that organizes matter.
Infinite Divisibility:
Believed everything contains a portion of every element, with Nous initiating movement and order.

Notable Quote:

“In everything, there is a share of everything, but Mind is infinite and self-ruling.”

Anaxagoras’ rationalism influenced both Socratic and scientific traditions.

18. Archelaus of Athens

Historical Context

A pupil of Anaxagoras, Archelaus (5th century BCE) extended his teacher’s ideas into ethics and political theory.

Philosophical Contributions

Cosmology:
Believed Nous governed both living and non-living matter.
Ethical Naturalism:
Argued that moral laws arise from natural human needs.

Notable Quote:

“Mind governs all, both living and non-living.”

Archelaus bridged early cosmology and ethical philosophy.

19. Leucippus of Miletus

Historical Context

Leucippus (5th century BCE) is regarded as the founder of atomism, a revolutionary theory in ancient philosophy.

Philosophical Contributions

Atomism:
Proposed that the universe is composed of indivisible atoms moving in a void.
Determinism:
Argued that all events occur according to necessity.

Notable Quote:

“Nothing happens at random, but everything from reason and necessity.”

Leucippus’ atomism provided a mechanistic view of the universe.

20. Democritus of Abdera

Historical Context

A student of Leucippus, Democritus (c. 460–370 BCE) developed a more detailed version of atomism.

Philosophical Contributions

Atomic Theory:
Explained the physical world as composed of atoms moving in a void.
Ethics:
Advocated for a life of moderation and contentment, aligning with his materialist outlook.

Notable Quote:

“By convention sweet, by convention bitter; in reality, atoms and void.”

Democritus’ ideas foreshadowed modern scientific theories.

21. Diogenes of Apollonia

Historical Context

Diogenes (5th century BCE) synthesized earlier cosmological ideas with a focus on air as the primary substance.

Philosophical Contributions

Unity through Air:
Believed air was both material and divine, the principle underlying all things.
Rational Order:
Emphasized the role of intelligence in the universe.

Notable Quote:

“Air governs all, and intelligence is its greatest form.”

Diogenes’ fusion of naturalism and rationalism contributed to early scientific thought.

Conclusion

These early Greek philosophers laid the foundation for Western philosophy, each contributing unique perspectives on the nature of reality, the cosmos, and human existence. Their ideas remain vital to understanding the origins of scientific and metaphysical inquiry.

Happy Studying!