Xenophon was born around 431 BC in Athens, Greece, during a time of great political and military upheaval. He was a member of the aristocracy and received a traditional education, which included rhetoric, literature, and physical training. As a young man, he became a follower of Socrates, whose teachings greatly influenced him. However, unlike some of Socrates’ other students, Xenophon was more interested in practical matters, such as leadership and military strategy, than in abstract philosophy.
Xenophon’s early life coincided with the Peloponnesian War, a prolonged conflict between Athens and Sparta that shaped much of Greek politics during that period. Despite his Athenian heritage, Xenophon eventually aligned himself with Sparta, a decision that would profoundly influence his life.
Around 401 BC, Xenophon joined an expedition led by Cyrus the Younger, who sought to overthrow his brother, Artaxerxes II, and seize the Persian throne. This campaign is famously chronicled in Xenophon’s Anabasis, which recounts how, after Cyrus’s death in the Battle of Cunaxa, the Greek mercenaries, known as the Ten Thousand, were left stranded deep in Persian territory. Xenophon emerged as one of the leaders who successfully guided the army through hostile lands back to the safety of the Black Sea, a journey of incredible endurance and determination.
Xenophon’s involvement in this expedition marked the beginning of his life as both a soldier and a writer. His loyalty to Sparta grew after the expedition, and he became a close associate of the Spartan king Agesilaus II. Xenophon fought alongside the Spartans in several campaigns and was eventually exiled from Athens for his pro-Spartan sympathies.
During his exile, Xenophon lived in Scillus, near Olympia, where he managed an estate provided to him by the Spartans. He continued to write during this time, producing works that covered a wide range of topics. His Memorabilia is a collection of recollections of Socratic dialogues, offering a more practical and less philosophical portrayal of Socrates compared to Plato’s accounts. Another significant work, Cyropaedia, is a partly fictionalized account of the life of Cyrus the Great, which serves as both a biography and a treatise on leadership and statecraft.
Xenophon also wrote several other important works, including Hellenica, a history of Greece that picks up where Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War leaves off, and Oeconomicus, a Socratic dialogue on household management and agriculture.
Xenophon’s writings provide valuable insights into Greek culture, politics, and military affairs during his time. His practical approach to philosophy, combined with his firsthand experience in war and governance, made him a unique figure among ancient writers.
In his later years, Xenophon’s relationship with Sparta weakened as the city-state’s power declined. Eventually, he was able to return to Athens, though the exact circumstances of his return and death remain unclear. He is believed to have died around 354 BC.
Xenophon’s works continued to be influential long after his death, particularly in the fields of military strategy, leadership, and practical philosophy. His legacy endures as one of the most important historians and philosophers of ancient Greece.